Antiquities

Classical Antiquities

A new influence, possible from northern Syria, initiated the growth of the Minoan culture in Crete, the cultural center of which was at Knossos. Pottery developed, notably cups and large rhytons, carving in steatite reached a high degree of excellence in naturalistic work, and frescoes, painted pottery and goldsmiths' work soon equaled them. As time went on, the Cretans established trade relationships with Egypt, which were fully developed about 1400 B.C. After a period of cataclysmic earthquakes the Cretan culture seems to have given way to influence from Greece, whence the system of 'linear B' writing had been introduced, eventually replacing the older 'linear A'.

The center of mainland Greek culture in the second millennium B.C. was Mykenae, one of several cities where the rulers lived in palaces which may have had their origins in the Danubian cultures. Mykenean gold work is of the finest, and cut jewels were used for seals both in Crete and on the mainland. Mykenean jewelry is also exceptionally fine. Precious stones were drilled and carved, gold was used both for gem settings and for drinking vessels, but the level of artistic achievement was lower than in the earlier Minoan culture in Crete. This is best shown in vase painting, which degenerated into a sketchy style, though it later solidified into the strong designs of the geometric phase of Greek ceramics.

The 'classical' Greeks were grouped in city states ruling small territories. In the arts they developed steadily, from an Archaic phase [c. 800-500 B.C.], largely reflecting Persian and Egyptian influences, to a formal but realist tradition. In addition to monumental sculpture, small stone figures were made, and bronzes became expressions of a realist art. The production of ceramics was notable; not only painted vases but also small ceramic figures of people and animals were made. At first vases were painted with scenes in which the human figures were black; later a [p. 39] red-figure ware took over, with an increased skill in drawing realistic figures. There is a strong local variation in ceramics. Corinthian wares with different forms and floral decorations, as well as processions of mythical animals, contrast strongly with Athenian wares. The traditions of ceramic art continued under the Roman domination of Greece which started in the late second century B.C.; in this later phase the country became more luxurious and ornaments of gold more elaborate. Small ceramic figures reach a high point in the beautiful coloured figurines from Tanagra. Coinage in silver, gold and electrum was among the most beautiful ever made; it is said to have originated in Lydia and spread from the Greek cites in Asia Minor. Painters flourished, but little is known of their work except from vase paintings and mosaic copies usually from the Roman period.

Italian art begins with the pottery of many tribal groups of the third millennium B.C., sometimes of high quality but not approaching the wares made in the various Greek colonies around the coasts. In the late eighth century B.C. the Etruscans invaded north-eastern Italy and set up a group of city states, only loosely united. They excelled as craftsmen in bronze, and made fine jewelry, often of gold, and using a technique of almost microscopic encrustation. Much of their own pottery is complex in form but lacking inspiration. However, they imported the finest pottery from Greece. Their small sculptures in bronze, stone and terracotta reach heights of realism not met with before, and they made temples adorned with large and remarkable terracotta sculptures, some of them up to 8 feet [2.5m] high. In their tombs they painted frescoes of subjects taken from daily life and mythology. Their dead were cremated, but the ashes laid in miniature sarcophagi, often with a painted figure of the deceased sculptured on the lid, also in a strictly realistic style. Scenes from the Greek classics are often found engraved on the backs of Etruscan bronze mirrors, and large and beautiful bronze vessels with human figures in the round are not uncommon.

Rome was a small city state, ruled for many years by Etruscan kings. It revolted [c. 330 B.C.], and the Roman republic slowly absorbed all of Italy into a unified civilization. The Roman arts aimed at realism, in a truly Etruscan manner. The early Roman bronzes and sculptures are sound but not brilliant works, apart from their copper coinage, which displays a Roman strength of character. The great days of Roman art came with the growth of the imperial power, starting about 27 B.C., and the emperors adorned the capital with buildings and sculpture. Gold, jewelry, mosaics, encaustic painting, metalwork and glass reached high standards and were produced in great quantities. The center of a great empire, Rome attracted visitors from other lands and traditions became more cosmopolitan. Standards, however, remained high until the period of wars of survival against the barbarians in the fourth and fifth centuries A.D. led to a simplification of art. Constantine had already moved the capital to Byzantium [Constantinople] in A.D. 313.

Roman art flourished throughout the Empire. Some variations in local styles can be discerned, but from Britain to the borders of Persia, and from the Rhine and the Danube to the Sahara there was a unity of culture. In the whole area Roman-style cities grew up with Roman sculpture, architecture and paintings. In the west there were some special features such as the production of the red terra sigillata ceramics from the Rhineland and southern France. Everywhere mosaics adorned the floors of villas. Wine was drunk from silver cups, and objects of everyday life included carvings in bone and ivory, fine glassware, and a multiplicity of brooches and jewels. Silver dishes were cast in moulds, and potters worked in domed kilns to produce an interesting variety of local wares. Inscribed memorials show the mixture of population in every part of the Empire including Londinium [London] which was second only to Rome in population. The North African cities, though smaller than the capital, were equally splendid.

The dissensions between rival claimants to the Empire, and later the incursions of barbarians, brought the mighty social construction to ruin. Attila the Hun spared Rome at the request of a Christian pope [A.D. 452], while a Christian Roman emperor ruled from Byzantium.

Christian art in the Roman Empire was a phenomenon which grew steadily even in times when the religion was officially unrecognized. The arts were represented by catacomb paintings and sculptures on the marble sarcophagi, and because persecutions, although cruel, were intermittent, a surprising amount of early Christian art has survived. There is a real decline in quality but there is an appealing simplicity and directness. Figures in frescoes are less free, and even the mosaics become simplified. The marble sarcophagi no longer depict naked gods and heroes, but show discreetly dressed people in scenes from the Gospels. Naturally the raising or Lazarus is a favourite theme. Early Christian glass includes a number of vessels in which medallions in gold leaf have been enclosed in two layers of glass.

When Constantine gave the Church freedom and protection, building of basilica churches with splendid mosaics and fescoes flourished and in Italy they developed through the style of the churches in Ravenna towards the beginnings of medieval Christian art.

The Roman tradition can be seen in the art of Byzantium until its fall in the middle of the fifteenth century, and even after that in the art of the orthodox churches of eastern Europe. Byzantine art is rich, and includes sculpture in a variety of stones, massive jewelry, renowned mosaic work, and attractively engraved glassware. Painting survives in a few magnificent books of the Gospels, and there was a wealth of ceremonial jewelry, rings and chains of office, as well as silver caskets and chalices. The ending of Roman art was never debased; it was active and alive until the fall of Constantinople. [pp. 39-40]